Spoken English Module | ಸ್ಪೋಕನ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್

Lesson 1

Alphabet & Types of Sentences

ವರ್ಣಮಾಲೆ ಮತ್ತು ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

The English alphabet has 26 letters.

ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ 26 ವರ್ಣಮಾಲೆಗಳಿವೆ.

Capital letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

ದೊಡ್ಡ ಅಕ್ಷರಗಳು (Capital letters)

Small letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z

ಸಣ್ಣ ಅಕ್ಷರಗಳು (Small letters)

‘A E I O U’ are the five VOWELS of the English alphabet.

ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ವರ್ಣಮಾಲೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ‘AEIOU’ ಎಂಬ ಐದು ಸ್ವರಾಕ್ಷರಗಳು ಇವೆ.

There are 21 CONSONANTS in the English alphabet: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z

ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ವರ್ಣಮಾಲೆಯಲ್ಲಿ 21 ವ್ಯಂಜನಾಕ್ಷರಗಳಿವೆ.

Sentence and Phrase

Sentence — A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense.

ವಾಕ್ಯ — ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಅರ್ಥಪೂರ್ಣವಾದ ಪದಗಳ ಗುಂಪನ್ನು ‘ವಾಕ್ಯ’ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ.

Example: I am very happy to learn English.

Subject: "I" — the person or thing being talked about.ಕರ್ತೃಪದ — ಯಾರ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಮಾತನಾಡಲಾಗಿದೆ.
Verb: "am" — the action or state word.ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ.
Object: "to learn English" — extra information about the subject.ಕರ್ಮಪದ — ಕರ್ತೃವಿನ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಮಾಹಿತಿ ನೀಡುವ ಪದಗಳು.

Phrase — A group of words that does not make complete sense, or is part of a sentence.

ಪದಗುಚ್ಛ — ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ನೀಡದ ಪದಗಳ ಗುಂಪು.

Example: "Running in the park" — this does not give a complete meaning, so it is a Phrase.

Types of Sentences / ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

Type	Function	Example
1. Declarative / Assertiveನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು	States a fact.ಏನನ್ನಾದರೂ ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟವಾಗಿ ಹೇಳುವುದು.	I like English.
2. Interrogativeಪ್ರಶ್ನಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು	Asks a question.ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಕೇಳುವುದು.	Do you like English?
3. Imperativeಆದೇಶಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು	Gives a command or request.ಆಜ್ಞೆ ಅಥವಾ ವಿನಂತಿ.	Close the door, please.
4. Exclamatoryಆಶ್ಚರ್ಯಸೂಚಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು	Expresses surprise.ಆಶ್ಚರ್ಯವನ್ನು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಪಡಿಸುವುದು.	What a beautiful day!

Declarative sentences can be Positive or Negative. ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು ಸಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ಅಥವಾ ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿರಬಹುದು.

Positive / ಸಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ	Negative / ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ
I like English	I do not like English
We watched a movie last night	We did not watch a movie last night

Lesson 2

Parts of Speech

ಪದಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

A Part of Speech is the name given to each word in a sentence based on the role it plays.

Part of Speech ಅಂದರೆ — ವಾಕ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿರುವ ಪದಗಳು ಅವುಗಳ ಪಾತ್ರವನ್ನು ಆಧರಿಸಿ ಪ್ರತಿ ಪದಕ್ಕೂ ವಿಭಿನ್ನ ಹೆಸರುಗಳನ್ನು ನೀಡುವುದು.

Look at how the same word "back" plays four different roles:

The heavy load broke his back. → Noun ನಾಮಪದ
He entered through the back door. → Adjective ಗುಣವಿಶೇಷಣ
Do not back out of your word. → Verb ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ
Go back and never come again. → Adverb ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣ

The same word can belong to different parts of speech depending on how it is used in a sentence. ಒಂದೇ ಪದವು ವಾಕ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಬಳಸುವ ರೀತಿಯನ್ನು ಅನುಸರಿಸಿ ಬೇರೆ ಬೇರೆ ಪದ ವಿಧಗಳಿಗೆ ಸೇರಬಹುದು.

There are 8 Parts of Speech

#	Part of Speech	Kannada	Example
1	Noun	ನಾಮಪದ	Ramesh, Bengaluru, book
2	Pronoun	ಸರ್ವನಾಮ	he, she, it, they
3	Adjective	ಗುಣವಿಶೇಷಣ	beautiful, tall
4	Preposition	ಉಪಸರ್ಗ	in, on, at, under
5	Verb	ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ	run, write, speak
6	Adverb	ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣ	quickly, well
7	Conjunction	ಸಂಯೋಗ	and, but, or
8	Interjection	ಉದ್ಗಾರ	Wow! Oh! Alas!

Lesson 3

Noun

ನಾಮಪದ

A word used to name a person, animal, place or thing is called a Noun.

ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿ, ಪ್ರಾಣಿ, ಸ್ಥಳ ಅಥವಾ ವಸ್ತುವನ್ನು ಹೆಸರಿಸಲು ಬಳಸುವ ಪದವನ್ನು ನಾಮಪದ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Types of Nouns / ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

Type	Kannada	Example
Proper Noun	ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದ	Suresh, Bengaluru, Monday
Common Noun	ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ನಾಮಪದ	teacher, city, river
Collective Noun	ಸಮೂಹ ನಾಮಪದ	team, crowd, army
Material Noun	ವಸ್ತು ನಾಮಪದ	gold, iron, wood
Abstract Noun	ಅಮೂರ್ತ ನಾಮಪದ	happiness, bravery
Countable Noun	ಎಣಿಸಬಹುದಾದ ನಾಮಪದ	pen, book, apple
Uncountable Noun	ಎಣಿಸಲಾಗದ ನಾಮಪದ	milk, water, money
Compound Noun	ಸಂಯುಕ್ತ ನಾಮಪದ	toothbrush, rainfall
Singular Noun	ಏಕವಚನ	boy, tree
Plural Noun	ಬಹುವಚನ	boys, trees

1. Proper Noun — ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದ

A particular name of a person, place, day of the week or month.

ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿ, ಸ್ಥಳದ ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಹೆಸರು, ವಾರದ ದಿನಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ತಿಂಗಳುಗಳು.

Example: Suresh is from Bengaluru and he is working at Jnanagangothri.

Person: Suresh (If we say "Teacher", it becomes a Common Noun)
Place: Bengaluru (If we say "City", it becomes a Common Noun)
Organization: Jnanagangothri (If we say "Institute", it becomes a Common Noun)
Thing: Mount Everest, Titanic (If we say "Mountain / Ship", it becomes a Common Noun)

Rule 1: The initial letter of a Proper Noun must always be a capital letter, no matter where it appears in the sentence. ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದದ ಆರಂಭ ಅಕ್ಷರವನ್ನು ವಾಕ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಎಲ್ಲೇ ಇದ್ದರೂ ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಅಕ್ಷರದಲ್ಲಿಯೇ ಬರೆಯಬೇಕು.

Pawan Sherawath is the finest Kabaddi player.
Haritha is the Lata Mangeshkar of our college.

Rule 2: Proper Nouns normally do not take articles (a, an, the) because they are already specific and unique. ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದಗಳಿಗೆ ಸೂಚಕಗಳ (articles) ಅವಶ್ಯಕತೆಯಿಲ್ಲ.

The Ravi is coming. Ravi is coming. The New York City is a busy place. New York City is a busy place.

Exception: When an article is used before a proper noun, it points to the quality rather than the person. ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ಉಪಸರ್ಗ/ಸೂಚಕಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿದಾಗ, ಆ ಪದವು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗಿಂತ ಗುಣಕ್ಕೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಪ್ರಾಮುಖ್ಯತೆ ನೀಡುತ್ತದೆ.

Ex: Haritha is the Lata Mangeshkar of our college.

Rule 3: Capitalise directions (east, west, north, south) only when they are part of a place name. ದಿಕ್ಕುಗಳನ್ನು ಸ್ಥಳದ ಭಾಗವಾಗಿ ಬಳಸಿದರೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಮೊದಲ ಅಕ್ಷರ ದೊಡ್ಡದಾಗಿರಬೇಕು.

The Western Ghat section is extremely serene.
You will find what you are looking for if you go north.

Rule 4: Days and months are always capitalised. ದಿನಗಳ ಮತ್ತು ತಿಂಗಳುಗಳ ಮೊದಲ ಅಕ್ಷರ ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಅಕ್ಷರವಾಗಿರಬೇಕು.

Are you coming home on Wednesday?
Schools will reopen in the month of June for sure.

Gender-specific Nouns — ಲಿಂಗ ಆಧಾರಿತ ನಾಮಪದಗಳು

By adding ‘ess’:

Masculine / ಪುಲ್ಲಿಂಗ	Feminine / ಸ್ತ್ರೀಲಿಂಗ
Lion	Lioness
Priest	Priestess
Author	Authoress
Shepherd	Shepherdess
Heir	Heiress
Host	Hostess
Poet	Poetess

Adjective → Abstract Noun

Abstract nouns are often derived from adjectives to represent qualities, states, emotions or concepts.

Adjective	Abstract Noun	Adjective	Abstract Noun
Happy	Happiness	Honest	Honesty
Brave	Bravery	Strong	Strength
Kind	Kindness	True	Truth
Angry	Anger	Wise	Wisdom
Calm	Calmness	Young	Youth
Clear	Clarity	Good	Goodness
Dark	Darkness	Great	Greatness
Fair	Fairness	—	—

Lesson 4

Pronoun

ಸರ್ವನಾಮ

A Pronoun is any word in English which replaces a noun.

ಸರ್ವನಾಮ ಎಂದರೆ ನಾಮಪದದ ಬದಲಿಗೆ ಬಳಸುವ ಪದ.

Ratan Naval Tata is an Indian industrialist. He was also chairman of Tata Group. He is the recipient of two of the highest civilian awards of India.

ಪರಿಚಯಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯದ ನಂತರ ನಾವು ‘ರತನ್ ನವಲ್ ಟಾಟಾ’ ಬದಲಿಗೆ ‘He’ ಬಳಸುತ್ತೇವೆ — ಇದರಿಂದ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು ಸುಲಭವಾಗಿ ಓದಲ್ಪಡುತ್ತವೆ.

Types of Pronouns / ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

Personal Pronouns ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Possessive Pronouns ಸ್ವಾಮ್ಯ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Reflexive Pronouns ಆತ್ಮವಾಚಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Reciprocal Pronouns ಪರಸ್ಪರ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Relative Pronouns ಸಂಬಂಧವಾಚಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Indefinite Pronouns ಅನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು
Demonstrative Pronouns ದರ್ಶಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು

I. Personal Pronouns — ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು

Personal pronouns are monosyllabic words used to substitute proper nouns that repeat themselves in a particular context. They indicate the number and gender of the corresponding noun.

ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು ಒಂದೇ ಅಕ್ಷರವಾಗಿ ಉಚ್ಚರಿಸುವ ಪದಗಳು (ಉದಾ: I, We). ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ಬದಲಾಗಿ ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಅವು ನಾಮಪದದ ಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಮತ್ತು ಲಿಂಗವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Person	Singular / ಏಕವಚನ	Plural / ಬಹುವಚನ
1st Person	I — ನಾನು	We — ನಾವು
2nd Person	You — ನೀನು	You — ನೀವು
3rd Person	He — ಅವನು, She — ಅವಳು, It — ಅದು	They — ಅವರು

Rule 1 — Order of Persons: When all personal pronouns are singular (I, You, he / I, You, she), the correct sequence is Second → Third → First [Rule 231]. ಎಲ್ಲಾ ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು ಏಕವಚನದಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಾಗ ಸರಿಯಾದ ಅನುಕ್ರಮ — ಎರಡನೇ, ಮೂರನೇ, ಮೊದಲ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿ [ನಿಯಮ 231].

You, he and I had gone for shopping. I, you and he had gone for shopping. You, she and I were best friends.

Exception — Accepting guilt: If the sentence is about accepting a mistake, the order is First → Second → Third [Rule 123]. ವಾಕ್ಯವು ತಪ್ಪೊಪ್ಪಿಗೆಗೆ ಸಂಬಂಧಿಸಿದ್ದರೆ ಸರಿಯಾದ ಕ್ರಮ — ಮೊದಲ, ಎರಡನೇ, ಮೂರನೇ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿ [ನಿಯಮ 123].

I, you and he will ask for pardon. You, he and I will ask for pardon. I, you and he are at fault. You, he and I are at fault.

Lesson 5

Verb

ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ

A Verb is an action word.

ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಅಂದರೆ ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುವ ಪದ.

Two Types of Verbs

Main Verb — involves some physical action. ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ — ಭೌತಿಕ ಕ್ರಿಯೆ ಇರುತ್ತದೆ.
Auxiliary / Helping / Modal Verb — no physical action. ಸಹಾಯಕ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ — ಯಾವುದೇ ಭೌತಿಕ ಕ್ರಿಯೆ ಇರುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.

Main verbs show the main activity (underlined words are main verbs):

People enjoy sports.
I saw an elephant.
We are watching TV.
He speaks English.
He has arrived.
John goes to school.

Auxiliary verbs give structure or support to the sentence:

Alberto is writing a message to his girlfriend.
He is doing it for fixing a date for them.
Recently he has heard that a restaurant is offering a good deal for couples.
Instantly, he was excited and booked a table for them.

Helping Verbs — Singular vs Plural

Singular / ಏಕವಚನ	Plural / ಬಹುವಚನ	Example	Reason
Is	Are	She is preparing / They are preparing	Present tense
Was	Were	She was preparing / They were preparing	Past tense
Has	Have	She has been preparing / They have been preparing	Perfect tense
Goes	Go	She goes / They go	Simple present
Does	Do	She does / They do	Simple present
Had	Had	She had cooked / They had cooked	Same for both
Can	Can	She can do it / They can do it	Same for both
May	May	She may extend / They may extend	Same for both

V1, V2, V3, V4

V1 = Base form | V2 = Simple Past | V3 = Past Participle | V4 = V1 + ing V1 ಮೂಲ ರೂಪ · V2 ಸರಳ ಭೂತಕಾಲ · V3 ಪೂರ್ಣ ರೂಪ · V4 ನಿರಂತರ ರೂಪ

Only the V1 form changes between singular and plural. V2, V3 and V4 stay the same for both. ಕೇವಲ V1 ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ರೂಪ ಮಾತ್ರ ಏಕವಚನ ಮತ್ತು ಬಹುವಚನವಾಗಿ ಬದಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. V2, V3, V4 ಎರಡರಲ್ಲೂ ಒಂದೇ ಆಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ.

Singular (V1 + s)	Plural (V1)
Walks	Walk
Reads	Read
Thinks	Think

V1 · V2 · V3 Table

V1	V2	V3	V1	V2	V3
awake	awoke	awoken	catch	caught	caught
be (am/is/are)	was/were	been	choose	chose	chosen
beat	beat	beaten	come	came	come
become	became	become	cost	cost	cost
begin	began	begun	cut	cut	cut
bend	bent	bent	dig	dug	dug
bet	bet	bet	do	did	done
bid	bid	bid	draw	drew	drawn
bite	bit	bitten	dream	dreamed	dreamt
blow	blew	blown	drive	drove	driven
break	broke	broken	drink	drank	drunk
bring	brought	brought	eat	ate	eaten
broadcast	broadcast	broadcast	fall	fell	fallen
build	built	built	feel	felt	felt
burn	burned	burnt	fight	fought	fought
buy	bought	bought	find	found	found
fly	flew	flown	forget	forgot	forgotten
forgive	forgave	forgiven	freeze	froze	frozen

Lesson 6

Adverbs

ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣ

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They tell us how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed.

ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳು ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳು, ಗುಣವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳು ಅಥವಾ ಇತರ ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳನ್ನು ಮಾರ್ಪಡಿಸುವ ಪದಗಳು. ಒಂದು ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ಹೇಗೆ, ಯಾವಾಗ, ಎಲ್ಲಿ, ಅಥವಾ ಎಷ್ಟರ ಮಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ನಡೆಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Example: He drives very fast. — Here ‘fast’ is an adverb; it shows the way in which the action “drive” is happening.

ಮೇಲಿನ ವಾಕ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ‘fast’ ಎಂಬುದು ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣ — "ಡ್ರೈವ್" ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯು ಹೇಗೆ ನಡೆಯುತ್ತಿದೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.

Note 1: Most adverbs end with ‘ly’. ಬಹುತೇಕ ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳು ‘ly’ ನಿಂದ ಕೊನೆಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತವೆ.

Quickly: He ran quickly to catch the bus.
Carefully: She handled the fragile glassware carefully.
Beautifully: The orchestra played the music beautifully.
Quietly: Please speak quietly in the library.
Patiently: She waited patiently for her turn.

Note 2: Some adverbs do not end with ‘ly’. ಕೆಲವು ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳು ‘ly’ ನಿಂದ ಕೊನೆಗೊಳ್ಳುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.

Correct	Wrong	Example
Fast	fastly	He ran fast to catch the train.
Well	welly	She plays the piano well.
Late	lately	They arrived late to the party.
Hard	hardly	He worked hard to finish the project.
Soon	soonly	We will leave soon for the airport.

Late (ತಡವಾಗಿ) vs Lately (ಇತ್ತೀಚೆಗೆ) — Late focuses on time after the expected time; Lately focuses on recent or current time. Late = ಅಂದುಕೊಂಡಿದ್ದ ಸಮಯಕ್ಕಿಂತ ತಡವಾಗಿ · Lately = ಇತ್ತೀಚೆಗೆ ನಡೆದ ಘಟನೆಗಳು.

They have been eating out a lot lately. (ಅವರು ಇತ್ತೀಚೆಗೆ ಹೊರಗೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ತಿನ್ನುತ್ತಿದ್ದಾರೆ.)

Hard (ಕಠಿಣವಾಗಿ) vs Hardly (ಬಹಳ ಕಡಿಮೆ / ಬೇಕಾಬಿಟ್ಟಿಯಾಗಿ) Hard = ಕಠಿಣ ಶ್ರಮದಿಂದ · Hardly = ಬಹಳ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಪ್ರಮಾಣದಲ್ಲಿ.

She worked hard to achieve her goals. / She hardly goes to the gym.

Quick Tips — Whom & Whose

Word	Use	Example
Whom	Object pronoun (like him, her, us) — used to ask which person receives an action.ಕರ್ಮ ಸರ್ವನಾಮ — ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ಸ್ವೀಕರಿಸುವ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಯನ್ನು ಕೇಳಲು.	This is my neighbour whom I like a lot.
Whose	Possessive pronoun (like her, his, our) — used to find out which person something belongs to.ಸ್ವಾಮ್ಯ ಸರ್ವನಾಮ — ಯಾರಿಗೆ ಯಾವುದು ಸೇರಿದೆ ಎಂದು ಕೇಳಲು.	Whose notebook was stolen in the class?

Lesson 7

Conjunctions

ಸಂಯೋಗಗಳು

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.

ಸಂಯೋಗಗಳು ಇತರ ಪದಗಳು, ಪದಗುಚ್ಛಗಳನ್ನು ಒಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ಜೋಡಿಸುವ ಪದಗಳಾಗಿವೆ.

Ram and Raj are twins.
She worked hard yet she failed.
She went to play, although it was hot outside.

Paired Conjunctions / ಜೋಡಿ ಸಂಯೋಗಗಳು

Pair	Meaning
Lest — should	ಆಗದಿರಲೆಂದು
Either — or	ಇಬ್ಬರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಬ್ಬರು / ಎರಡರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದು
Neither — nor	ಇಬ್ಬರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಬ್ಬರೂ ಅಲ್ಲ / ಎರಡೂ ಅಲ್ಲ
Not only — but also	ಅಷ್ಟೇ ಅಲ್ಲದೆ — ಸಹ
Else — but	ಬೇರೆ — ಆದರೆ
Whether — or	ಇದೆಯೋ — ಅಥವಾ
As — if / As — though	ಎಂಬಂತೆ

1. Lest — Should

I was afraid to open the door lest he would follow me. I was afraid to open the door lest he should follow me.

‘Not’ must never be used with ‘lest’. The word ‘lest’ already carries a negative meaning. "lest" ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ "not" ಬಳಸಬಾರದು — ಅದು ಈಗಾಗಲೇ ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿದೆ.

Work hard lest you should not fail. Work hard lest you should fail.

2. Either — Or · Neither — Nor · Not only — But also

These conjunctions must always be used in their correct pairs. ಈ ಸಂಯೋಗಗಳನ್ನು ಇದೇ ಜೋಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾತ್ರ ಬಳಸಬೇಕು.

Either you nor your brother has won the prize. Either you or your brother has won the prize.

Neither he or his brother can walk faster than Santosh. Neither he nor his brother can walk faster than Lavanya.

Either = one among the two. Neither = none among the two. Either = ಇಬ್ಬರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಬ್ಬರು · Neither = ಇಬ್ಬರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಬ್ಬರೂ ಅಲ್ಲ.

Common Mistakes / ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ತಪ್ಪುಗಳು

❌ Mistake	✅ Correction
There are so much people.	There are so many people.
I am 22 year.	I am 22 years old.
Its going to be sunny tomorrow.	It’s going to be sunny tomorrow.
There is three books in the box.	There are three books in the box.
We met 3 years before.	We met 3 years ago.
That’s shes handbag.	That’s her handbag.
I like a lot the coffee.	I like coffee a lot.
I was boring in class.	I was bored in class.
I have been a teacher since 3 years.	I have been a teacher for 3 years.
She have gone to the park.	She has gone to the park.

Lesson 8

Prepositions

ಉಪಸರ್ಗಗಳು

A Preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object.

ದಿಕ್ಕು, ಸಮಯ, ಸ್ಥಳ, ಪ್ರಾದೇಶಿಕ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸಲು ಅಥವಾ ವಸ್ತುವನ್ನು ಪರಿಚಯಿಸಲು ನಾಮಪದ, ಸರ್ವನಾಮ ಅಥವಾ ನಾಮಪದ ಪದಗುಚ್ಛದ ಮೊದಲು ಬಳಸುವ ಪದ ಅಥವಾ ಪದಗಳ ಗುಂಪನ್ನು ಉಪಸರ್ಗ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ.

She drove to the store.
He reads in the evening.
I go to work at 8:00.
The car had not been paid for.
A gift by my teacher.

Types of Prepositions

Type	Kannada	Examples
Simple	ಸರಳ ಉಪಸರ್ಗ	in, at, on, to, for, of, from, up, after, over, under, with, till
Double	ದ್ವಿ ಉಪಸರ್ಗ	into, within, upto
Compound	ಸಂಯುಕ್ತ ಉಪಸರ್ಗ	on behalf of, according to, in front of
Participle	ಕೃದಂತ ಉಪಸರ್ಗ	regarding, barring, concerning, considering

Prepositions of Time — ಸಮಯವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುವ

Preposition	Used with	Example
On	Days of the week ವಾರದ ದಿನಗಳು	on Monday
In	Months / seasons / time of day / year ತಿಂಗಳು, ಋತು, ದಿನದ ಸಮಯ, ವರ್ಷ	in August · in winter · in the morning · in 2006
At	Night / weekend ರಾತ್ರಿ, ವಾರಾಂತ್ಯ	at night · at the weekend
Since	From a certain point in time (past till now) ಕ್ರಿಯೆ ಪ್ರಾರಂಭವಾದ ಸಮಯ	since 1980

Lesson 9

Adjective

ಗುಣವಿಶೇಷಣ

Any word that indicates the quality or quantity of a noun or pronoun is called an Adjective.

ನಾಮಪದ ಅಥವಾ ಸರ್ವನಾಮದ ಗುಣ ಅಥವಾ ಪ್ರಮಾಣವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುವ ಯಾವುದೇ ಪದವನ್ನು ಗುಣವಿಶೇಷಣ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Types of Adjectives

Type	Kannada	Example
Adjective of Quality	ಗುಣವಾಚಕ	Ritu is a beautiful girl.
Adjective of Quantity	ಪ್ರಮಾಣವಾಚಕ	Give him some milk.
Adjective of Number	ಸಂಖ್ಯಾವಾಚಕ	Five boys are playing.
Proper Adjective	ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಗುಣವಾಚಕ	Indian culture
Demonstrative Adjective	ದರ್ಶಕ ಗುಣವಾಚಕ	This book is mine.
Distributive Adjective	ವಿತರಕ ಗುಣವಾಚಕ	Each student got a prize.

Some · Any · Many · Much

Some — used in affirmative/assertive sentences before uncountable nouns.

Some — ಧನಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಎಣಿಸಲಾಗದ ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Ex: I have some oil.

Any — used in negative sentences before plural countable nouns.

Any — ಋಣಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಬಹುವಚನ ಎಣಿಕೆ ಮಾಡಬಹುದಾದ ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Ex: He does not have any problems.

Many is used for countable nouns, whereas much is used for uncountable nouns.

ಎಣಿಸಬಹುದಾದ ನಾಮಪದಗಳಿಗೆ Many, ಎಣಿಸಲಾಗದ ನಾಮಪದಗಳಿಗೆ Much ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

I have many milk to drink. I have much milk to drink. I have many pens.

Lesson 10

Tenses

ಕಾಲಮಾನಗಳು

Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done.

ಕಾಲಮಾನಗಳು ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯ ಸಮಯವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ — ಕೆಲಸ ಯಾವಾಗ ನಡೆಯುತ್ತದೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Three Main Tenses

Tense	Kannada	Example
Present	ವರ್ತಮಾನ ಕಾಲ	I write a letter.
Past	ಭೂತಕಾಲ	I wrote a letter.
Future	ಭವಿಷ್ಯತ್ ಕಾಲ	I will write a letter.

Each tense is further divided into four categories:

Simple ಸರಳ
Continuous ನಿರಂತರ
Perfect ಪೂರ್ಣ
Perfect Continuous ಪೂರ್ಣ ನಿರಂತರ

1. Present Simple Tense

In Present Simple Tense, the V1 form of the verb is used to express general truths/facts, habits, and planned events in the near future.

Present Simple Tense ನಲ್ಲಿ V1 ರೂಪವನ್ನು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಸತ್ಯಗಳು, ಅಭ್ಯಾಸಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಹತ್ತಿರದ ಭವಿಷ್ಯದ ಯೋಜಿತ ಘಟನೆಗಳನ್ನು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಪಡಿಸಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Assertive: Sub + V1 (s/p) + Object ಸಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯ

Negative: Sub + does not / do not + V1 (plural) + Object ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯ

Interrogative: Does / Do + Sub + V1 (plural) + Object? ಪ್ರಶ್ನಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯ

In Negative and Interrogative sentences, always use the plural V1 form, irrespective of the subject. ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಶ್ನಾತ್ಮಕ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ನಾಮಪದ ಏಕವಚನ ಅಥವಾ ಬಹುವಚನವಾಗಿದ್ದರೂ V1 ಬಹುವಚನವಾಗಿರಬೇಕು.

Type	Correct	Wrong
Affirmative	The child plays in the park every day.	—
Negative	The child doesn't play in the park every day.	doesn't plays
Interrogative	Does the child play in the park every day?	Does the child plays…?
Affirmative (Pl.)	Children play in the park every day.	—
Negative (Pl.)	Children don't play in the park every day.	—

Usage — Present Simple ಎಲ್ಲಿ ಬಳಸಬೇಕು

Usage	Kannada	Example
Habits	ಅಭ್ಯಾಸಗಳು	She exercises at the gym four times a week.
General Facts	ನಿತ್ಯ ಸತ್ಯಗಳು	Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
Near Future	ಹತ್ತಿರದ ಭವಿಷ್ಯ	My exams end next week.
Present Time	ಪ್ರಸ್ತುತ	I live in Delhi.
"Here / There" sentences	"here" ಮತ್ತು "there" ನಿಂದ ಪ್ರಾರಂಭವಾಗುವ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು	Here comes my brother.
Repeating a Quotation	ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಗಳನ್ನು ನೆನಪಿಸಲು	Shakespeare says, "All the world's a stage."

Lesson 11

Degrees of Comparison

ಹೋಲಿಕೆಯ ಸ್ತರಗಳು

Degrees of comparison refer to the different forms of an adjective that indicate the extent or degree to which a quality or attribute is present.

ವ್ಯಾಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ Degrees of Comparison ಎಂದರೆ ಗುಣವಾಚಕದ ವಿವಿಧ ರೂಪಗಳು, ಅವು ಗುಣಲಕ್ಷಣದ ಪ್ರಮಾಣವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Degree	Kannada	Function	Example
Positive	ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಸ್ತರ	Basic form; no comparison.ಹೋಲಿಕೆ ಮಾಡದೆ ಗುಣವನ್ನು ವಿವರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.	The cat was extremely beautiful.
Comparative	ತುಲನಾತ್ಮಕ ಸ್ತರ	Shows greater or lesser degree.ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಅಥವಾ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಟ್ಟವನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.	My house is bigger than yours.
Superlative	ಅತ್ಯುನ್ನತ ಸ್ತರ	Shows the highest or lowest degree.ಅತ್ಯುನ್ನತ ಅಥವಾ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಟ್ಟವನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.	Maruti is the tallest boy in the class.

1. Positive Degree — Examples

My car is superb.
This book is incredibly interesting.
My new dress is absolutely gorgeous.
This new house is perfect for our family.
The coffee shop around the corner is brilliant for businessmen.

2. Comparative Degree — Examples

Your grade is worse than mine.
The Pacific Ocean is deeper than the Arctic Ocean.
You are more polite than Ram.
My brother is taller than I am, but he is older too.
Rose is more beautiful than Jasmine.
The Earth is larger than the moon.

3. Superlative Degree — Examples

This is the best cake I have ever had!
The person with the shortest stick has to go first.
Do you think Lucky will be the fastest runner in the race?
This is the worst day of my life!
Jagadish seems to be the most excited child at the party.

Type I — By adding ‘er’ and ‘est’

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Bright	Brighter	Brightest
Black	Blacker	Blackest
Bold	Bolder	Boldest
Clever	Cleverer	Cleverest
Cold	Colder	Coldest
Fast	Faster	Fastest
Great	Greater	Greatest
High	Higher	Highest

Lesson 12

Articles

ಉಪಪದ / ಸೂಚಕಗಳ ಬಳಕೆ

Articles in English (a, an, the) are used to specify whether a noun refers to something specific or something non-specific.

ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಉಪಪದಗಳು (a, an, the) — ನಾಮಪದವು ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಅಥವಾ ಅನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ವಸ್ತುವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತದೆಯೇ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಸಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Types of Articles

Definite article: the ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಉಪಪದ
Indefinite articles: a, an ಅನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಉಪಪದಗಳು
Zero article: no article ಉಪಪದ ಇಲ್ಲದಿರುವುದು

1. Definite Article — the

Used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or already known to the reader/listener.

ನಾಮಪದವು ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟವಾಗಿದ್ದಾಗ ಅಥವಾ ಓದುಗ/ಕೇಳುಗರಿಗೆ ತಿಳಿದಿರುವಾಗ ಏಕವಚನ ಮತ್ತು ಬಹುವಚನ ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

The dog chased the cat. (Specific dog and specific cat)
Please pass me the book. (A specific book both know about)

2. Indefinite Articles — a, an

‘A’ is used before words beginning with a consonant sound. ‘An’ is used before words beginning with a vowel sound.

ವ್ಯಂಜನ ಶಬ್ದಗಳಿಂದ ಪ್ರಾರಂಭವಾಗುವ ಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ‘A’, ಸ್ವರ ಶಬ್ದಗಳಿಂದ ಪ್ರಾರಂಭವಾಗುವ ಪದಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ‘An’ ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

I saw a dog. (Any dog, not a specific one)
She has an umbrella. (Any umbrella)

3. Zero Article

Used when referring to plural or uncountable nouns in a general or non-specific sense.

ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಅಥವಾ ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟವಲ್ಲದ ಅರ್ಥದಲ್ಲಿ ಬಹುವಚನ ಅಥವಾ ಎಣಿಸಲಾಗದ ನಾಮಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸುವಾಗ ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Dogs are loyal animals. (Dogs in general)
She loves music. (Music as a concept)

Countable Nouns

Singular	Plural
A bus (any bus) / the bus (particular bus)	the buses
An aeroplane / the aeroplane	the aeroplanes
A bottle / the bottle	the bottles
A watch / the watch	the watches
A window / the window	the windows
A computer / the computer	the computers

Uncountable nouns: articles are generally avoided.
a money a water the money the water

Rule 1: ‘The’ is used before unique things — the sun, the moon, the sea, the sky, the Arctic Circle, the environment, the ground. ವಿಶಿಷ್ಟ ವಸ್ತುಗಳ ಮೊದಲು ‘The’ ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

When she woke again, the sun was shining on her face.
Justice must be done even if the sky falls.

Lesson 13

Subject–Verb Agreement

ಕರ್ತೃ–ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಹೊಂದಾಣಿಕೆ

Fundamental Rule: A singular subject is followed by a singular verb. A plural subject is followed by a plural verb. ಮೂಲಭೂತ ನಿಯಮ — ಏಕವಚನ ಕರ್ತೃವಿಗೆ ಏಕವಚನ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ, ಬಹುವಚನ ಕರ್ತೃವಿಗೆ ಬಹುವಚನ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ.

Singular → Plural Nouns

Singular	Plural
Pen, Book, Road, Bus, Train, Glass	Pens, Books, Roads, Buses, Trains, Glasses
Analysis, Thesis, Crisis, Basis, Parenthesis	Analyses, Theses, Crises, Bases, Parentheses
Curriculum, Memorandum, Datum, Bacterium, Medium	Curricula, Memoranda, Data, Bacteria, Media
Criterion, Phenomenon	Criteria, Phenomena
Stimulus, Radius, Syllabus	Stimuli, Radii, Syllabi

Verb — Singular & Plural

Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular
Work	Works	Charge	Charges
Eat	Eats	Learn	Learns
Drive	Drives	Change	Changes
Travel	Travels	Find	Finds
Maintain	Maintains	—	—

Singular Subject → Singular Verb	Plural Subject → Plural Verb
Man walks	Men walk
King rules	Kings rule
Teacher teaches	Teachers teach
Minister supports	Ministers support

Specific Rules

Rule 1: When two nouns are connected by the conjunction “and”, a plural verb is usually used. ಎರಡು ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ನಡುವೆ “and” ಇದ್ದಾಗ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಬಹುವಚನ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಬೇಕು.

Rahul Dravid and Sachin Tendulkar are cricket players.
Rahul Dravid and Sachin Tendulkar play cricket.

Exception 1: If the noun refers to a single person, use a singular verb even though ‘and’ is present. ನಾವು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸುತ್ತಿರುವ ನಾಮಪದ ಏಕವಚನವಾಗಿದ್ದರೆ, ‘and’ ಇದ್ದರೂ ಏಕವಚನ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಬಳಸಬೇಕು.

Mr. Praveen, my teacher and mentor, is also a good guide.
The recently appointed coach and advisor of the team, Mr. Ravishastri, has emphasized the need for team spirit.

Exception 2: Article ‘THE’ is used only once when the two nouns refer to the same person or thing. If they refer to different persons/things, ‘THE’ is used before each noun — and the verb is plural. ಎರಡು ನಾಮಪದಗಳು ಒಂದೇ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿ/ವಸ್ತುವನ್ನು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸಿದಾಗ ‘THE’ ಒಮ್ಮೆ ಮಾತ್ರ. ವಿಭಿನ್ನ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗಳನ್ನು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸಿದರೆ ಪ್ರತಿ ನಾಮಪದಕ್ಕೂ ‘THE’ ಬಳಸಿ, ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಬಹುವಚನವಾಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ.

The secretary and chairman has arrived. (One person — singular verb)
The secretary and the chairman have arrived. (Two different people — plural verb)
The secretary and the president have been given a warm welcome.
The secretary and treasurer has been arrested.

Exception 3: If two different singular nouns express one idea, the verb should be singular. ಎರಡು ವಿಭಿನ್ನ ಏಕವಚನ ನಾಮಪದಗಳು ಒಂದು ಕಲ್ಪನೆಯನ್ನು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಪಡಿಸಿದರೆ, ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಏಕವಚನ ರೂಪದಲ್ಲಿರಬೇಕು.

‘Bread and milk’ is good for breakfast.
The ‘law and order’ situation in the state is under control.

Lesson 14

Direct & Indirect Speech

ನೇರ ಮತ್ತು ಪರೋಕ್ಷ ಭಾಷಣ

Direct speech (quoted speech) is when we report someone's exact words within quotation marks. It preserves the original wording, punctuation and tense.

ನೇರ ಭಾಷೆ — ಮೂಲ ಹೇಳಿಕೆಯ ನಿಖರವಾದ ಪದಗಳು, ವಿರಾಮಚಿಹ್ನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾಲಮಾನ ಬದಲಾಗುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.

Indirect speech (reported speech) is when we report what someone else said without quoting their exact words — adjusting pronouns, verb tenses and sometimes sentence structure.

ಪರೋಕ್ಷ ಭಾಷಣ — ಒಬ್ಬರು ಹೇಳಿದ ವಿಷಯವನ್ನು ಅವರ ನಿಖರವಾದ ಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸದೆ ಇನ್ನೊಬ್ಬರಿಗೆ ಹೇಳುವ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು.

Direct: "I will call you tomorrow."
Indirect: He said that he would call me the next day.

Modal Verbs — Changes

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
Can	Could
May	Might
Must	Had to / Would have to
Should	Should
Might	Might
Could	Could
Would	Would
Will	Would

Changes in Place & Time

Direct	Indirect	Direct	Indirect
Now	Then	This	That
Here	There	Tonight	That night
Today	That day	Ago	Before
Tomorrow	The next day	Thus	So
Last week	The previous week	Come	Go
Next	Following	—	—

Pronoun Changes

Direct	Indirect	Direct	Indirect
I	He / She	They	They
You	He / She / They	He	He
We	They	She	She
It	It	Us	Them
Our	Their	His / Her / Its	His / Her / Its

Remember these two cases: ಈ ಎರಡು ಸಂದರ್ಭಗಳನ್ನು ನೆನಪಿಡಿ.

When both subject and object are given: "Said" becomes "told", remove the comma and add "that".

ಕರ್ತೃ ಮತ್ತು ಕರ್ಮ ಇಬ್ಬರೂ ಇದ್ದಾಗ: "Said" → "told" ಆಗುತ್ತದೆ, ಕಾಮಾ ತೆಗೆದು "that" ಸೇರಿಸಬೇಕು.

Daddy said to me, "I have got a pen for you."
→ Daddy told me that he had gotten a pen for me.

When only the subject is given (no object): "Said" remains "said", remove the comma and add "that".

ಕೇವಲ ಕರ್ತೃ ಮಾತ್ರ ಇದ್ದಾಗ: "Said" ಹಾಗೆಯೇ ಉಳಿಯುತ್ತದೆ, ಕಾಮಾ ತೆಗೆದು "that" ಸೇರಿಸಬೇಕು.

Rani said, "I go to school everyday."
→ Rani said that she goes to school every day.

Present Simple → Past Simple

Direct: Sub + V1 (with/without S) + Object → Indirect: Sub + V2 + Object ವರ್ತಮಾನ ಸರಳ ಕಾಲವು ಭೂತ ಸರಳ ಕಾಲವಾಗಿ ಬದಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

He said, "I write a letter." → He said that he wrote a letter.
He said to me, "I write a letter." → He told me that he wrote a letter.
They said, "We play football." → They said that they played football.
They said to the coach, "We play football." → They told the coach that they played football.
She said, "I teach kids." → She said that she teach kids. (Teaching kids is a profession, so it stays in present tense)

Lesson 15

Active Voice → Passive Voice

ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ → ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ

Active voice and passive voice are two different ways of expressing an action performed by a subject in a sentence.

ಒಂದು ವಾಕ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿಷಯವು ನಿರ್ವಹಿಸಿದ ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಪಡಿಸುವ ಎರಡು ವಿಭಿನ್ನ ವಿಧಾನಗಳು — ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ ಮತ್ತು ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ.

Active Voice: The subject performs the action expressed by the verb.

ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ: ಕರ್ತೃವು ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ನಿರ್ವಹಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.

The children ate the fruit. — ಮಕ್ಕಳು ಹಣ್ಣು ತಿಂದರು.

Passive Voice: The subject undergoes the action, and the focus is on the receiver of the action.

ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ: ಗಮನವು ಕ್ರಿಯೆಯನ್ನು ಸ್ವೀಕರಿಸುವ ಕರ್ಮದ ಮೇಲೆ ಕೇಂದ್ರೀಕೃತವಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

The fruit was eaten by the children. — ಹಣ್ಣು ಮಕ್ಕಳಿಂದ ತಿನ್ನಲ್ಪಟ್ಟಿತು.

Rule 1: Always use V3 in passive voice. Active voice ನಲ್ಲಿ ಯಾವ ರೀತಿಯ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದವಿದ್ದರೂ Passive voice ನಲ್ಲಿ V3 ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದವನ್ನು ಮಾತ್ರ ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Rule 2: The subjective case of a pronoun changes to the objective case. ಸರ್ವನಾಮದ ಕರ್ತೃ ವಿಭಕ್ತಿ, ಕರ್ಮ ವಿಭಕ್ತಿಯಾಗಿ ಬದಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Subjective (Active)	Objective (Passive)
I	Me
We	Us
He	Him
She	Her
They	Them

Rule 3: When the sentence has a ‘Wh’ word (When, Where, Why, What, etc.), it stays in the same place in both voices. ‘Wh’ ಪದಗಳು ಎರಡೂ ವಾಚ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದೇ ಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲಿರುತ್ತವೆ.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Where did they find the keys?	Where were the keys found?
When will you finish the project?	When will the project be finished by you?
Why did she leave early?	Why was she left early?

Present Simple — Conversion Rules

Active (Assertive): Sub + V1 + Object ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ಸಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ

Passive (Assertive): Object + is/am/are + V3 + by + Subject ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ಸಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ

Active (Negative): Sub + does not / do not + V1 + Object ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ

Passive (Negative): Object + is/am/are + not + V3 + by + Subject ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ

Active (Interrogative): Does/Do + Sub + V1 + Object? ಕರ್ತರಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ಪ್ರಶ್ನಾತ್ಮಕ

Passive (Interrogative): Is/am/are + Object + V3 + by + Subject? ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ವಾಚ್ಯ — ಪ್ರಶ್ನಾತ್ಮಕ

Examples

My teacher loves me. → I am loved by my teacher.
He writes a script. → A script is written by him.
Ramesh celebrates his anniversary. → His anniversary is celebrated by Ramesh.
Carpenters make furniture. → Furniture is made by carpenters.

Lesson 16

Question Tag

ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್

A tag question is a statement followed by a small question. We use tag questions to ask for confirmation.

ಟ್ಯಾಗ್ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಎಂದರೆ ಒಂದು ಹೇಳಿಕೆಯ ನಂತರ ಬರುವ ಸಣ್ಣ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ. ದೃಢೀಕರಣಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಇದನ್ನು ಬಳಸುತ್ತೇವೆ.

You are tired, aren't you? ನೀವು ದಣಿದಿದ್ದೀರಿ, ಅಲ್ಲವೇ?
Jnanagangothri is the best institute for preparing for government jobs, isn't it? ಜ್ಞಾನಗಂಗೋತ್ರಿ ಸರ್ಕಾರಿ ಉದ್ಯೋಗಗಳಿಗೆ ತಯಾರಿ ಮಾಡುವ ಅತ್ಯುತ್ತಮ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಯಾಗಿದೆ, ಅಲ್ಲವೇ?
She is beautiful, isn't she? ಅವಳು ಸುಂದರವಾಗಿದ್ದಾಳೆ, ಅಲ್ಲವೇ?

Rules of Question Tags

Rule 1: The sentence and the question tag will be in the same tense. ವಾಕ್ಯ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್ ಒಂದೇ ಕಾಲಮಾನದಲ್ಲಿರುತ್ತದೆ.

The child goes to school daily, doesn't he? (Present tense)
You appeared for the KPSC examination, didn't you? (Past tense)

Rule 2: If the sentence is affirmative/positive, the question tag will be negative. ವಾಕ್ಯವು ಧನಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿದ್ದರೆ, ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್ ಋಣಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ.

He likes coffee, doesn't he?
They went to the store, didn't they?

Rule 3: If the sentence is negative, the question tag will be positive. ವಾಕ್ಯವು ಋಣಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿದ್ದರೆ, ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್ ಧನಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ.

All the students were not present, were they?
Monkeys cannot fly, can they?
Everyone cannot be clever, can they?

Rule 4: In a question tag, always use a pronoun. ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ಸರ್ವನಾಮವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಬೇಕು.

Ramesh cannot drive, can he? (‘Ramesh’ → ‘he’)

Rule 5: In negative question tags, use the contracted form of the helping verb. ನಕಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ ಟ್ಯಾಗ್‌ಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸಹಾಯಕ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದದ ಸಂಕ್ಷಿಪ್ತ ರೂಪವನ್ನು ಮಾತ್ರ ಬಳಸುತ್ತೇವೆ.

Has not Hasn't Could not Couldn't

He has done his homework, hasn't he?
He could work at night, couldn't he?

Lesson 17

Para-jumbled Sentences (PQRS)

ಪ್ಯಾರಾ-ಜಂಬಲ್ಡ್ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳು

In this section, a few sentences are given in illogical order and you need to identify the correct order.

ಈ ವಿಭಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಕೆಲವು ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ತರ್ಕಬದ್ಧವಲ್ಲದ ಕ್ರಮದಲ್ಲಿ ನೀಡಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ ಮತ್ತು ನೀವು ಸರಿಯಾದ ಕ್ರಮವನ್ನು ಗುರುತಿಸಬೇಕಾಗಿದೆ.

Types of Questions

All 4 sentences given in illogical order — choose the correct option. ಎಲ್ಲಾ 4 ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಗೊಂದಲಮಯ ಕ್ರಮದಲ್ಲಿ ನೀಡಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.
Opening and closing sentences given — arrange the middle sentences. ಮೊದಲ ಮತ್ತು ಕೊನೆಯ ವಾಕ್ಯ ನೀಡಿ ಮಧ್ಯದ ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಜೋಡಿಸುವುದು.
Questions asked separately (mostly in banking exams). ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕವಾಗಿ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಕೇಳುವುದು.

How to solve: The best approach is to identify compulsory pairs and follow the tricks given. ಉತ್ತಮ ವಿಧಾನ — ಕಡ್ಡಾಯ ಜೋಡಿಗಳನ್ನು ಗುರುತಿಸುವುದು.

Approach 1 — Using Transition Words

Transition words (connectors) establish connections and relationships between sentences, paragraphs or ideas. They guide the reader through the flow of information.

Transition words ಗಳು ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಲಿಂಕ್ ಮಾಡಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತವೆ. ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ Transition words ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಮುಂಚೆ ಒಂದು ವಾಕ್ಯ ಇರಲೇಬೇಕು.

Clue: The sentence which has a transition word should come second in the sequence. ಸೂಚನೆ — Transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯವು ಕ್ರಮದಲ್ಲಿ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರಬೇಕು.

Transition Words in English

Emphasis	Addition	Contrast	Order
Undoubtedly	Along with	Unlike	Following
Unquestionably	Apart from this	Nevertheless	At this time
Obviously	Moreover	On the other hand	Previously
Particularly in particular	Furthermore	Nonetheless	First / firstly
Especially	Also	Despite / in spite of	Second / secondly
Clearly	Too	In contrast (to)	Third / thirdly
Importantly	As well as that	Contrary to	Finally
Absolutely	Besides	Whereas	Subsequently
Definitely	In addition	Alternatively	Above all
Without a doubt	Not only… but also	Conversely	Before
Indeed	In addition to this	Even so	Last but not least
It should be noted	Additionally	Differing from	First and foremost

Examples

A. At the same time, many new nations were coming into existence.
B. The Olympics were one of the main ways in which these two nations competed.

ಉತ್ತರ: BA — "At the same time" ಎಂಬ transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ.

A. Flying is actually one of the safest ways to travel.
B. In fact, when measured per mile, flying is actually far safer than driving, or travelling by train.

ಉತ್ತರ: AB — "In fact" transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ.

A. U.K. regulator granting an emergency-use authorization for AstraZeneca's COVID-19 vaccine.
B. Unlike the mRNA vaccine platform of the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines, AstraZeneca uses a weakened version of a common cold virus.

ಉತ್ತರ: AB — "Unlike" transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ.

A. The emergency use approval makes it easier for vaccine testing and manufacturing in India.
B. However, the European Medicines Agency clearly said that scientific information on issues related to quality and safety of the vaccine is necessary.

ಉತ್ತರ: AB — "However" transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ.

A. There is a clear dichotomy in Telangana Chief Minister K Chandrasekhar Rao's decisions on the agriculture front.
B. On the one hand, he builds excellent irrigation infrastructure like the Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation.

ಉತ್ತರ: AB — "On the one hand" transition word ಇರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ ಎರಡನೆಯದಾಗಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ.

Lesson 18

Idioms & Phrases

ನುಡಿಗಟ್ಟುಗಳು

We often come across expressions like ‘It's raining cats and dogs’, which don't seem to make any literal sense — but they express heavy rainfall.

‘It's raining cats and dogs’ ಎಂಬಂತಹ ಅಭಿವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗಳು ಅಕ್ಷರಾರ್ಥದಲ್ಲಿ ಅರ್ಥವಾಗುವುದಿಲ್ಲ, ಆದರೆ ಅವು ಭಾರೀ ಮಳೆಯನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Best method: Learn at least 10 idioms per day for 6 days and revise them on the 7th day. ಉತ್ತಮ ವಿಧಾನ — ದಿನಕ್ಕೆ ಕನಿಷ್ಠ 10 ನುಡಿಗಟ್ಟುಗಳನ್ನು 6 ದಿನ ಕಲಿತು, 7ನೇ ದಿನ ಪುನರಾವರ್ತನೆ ಮಾಡಿ.

Idiom	Meaning	Example
A hot potato	Something difficult or dangerous to deal with.ನಿಭಾಯಿಸಲು ಕಷ್ಟ ಅಥವಾ ಅಪಾಯಕಾರಿ ವಿಷಯ.	Terrorism is a political hot potato in Afghanistan.
A penny for your thoughts	A way of asking what someone is thinking.ಯಾರೋ ಏನನ್ನುತ್ತಿದ್ದಾರೆ ಎಂದು ಕೇಳುವ ರೀತಿ.	After several minutes of silence he finally looked at her and said, "A penny for your thoughts, Lily."
Actions speak louder than words	What you do is more significant than what you say.ಮಾತಿಗಿಂತ ಕ್ರಿಯೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಮುಖ್ಯ.	He: I'm sorry. I'll try to be a better person henceforth. She: Actions speak louder than words.
Add insult to injury	To make a bad situation worse.ಕೆಟ್ಟ ಪರಿಸ್ಥಿತಿಯನ್ನು ಇನ್ನಷ್ಟು ಕೆಡಿಸುವುದು.	Their basement was flooded, and then, to add insult to injury, a pipe burst in the kitchen.

Lesson 19

Reading Comprehension (RC)

ಗದ್ಯಭಾಗ ಓದುವುದು

Reading comprehension is a crucial part of competitive exams, testing your ability to understand and interpret written passages efficiently.

ಸ್ಪರ್ಧಾತ್ಮಕ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ Reading Comprehension ಬಹಳ ಮುಖ್ಯ — ಬರೆದ ಪಠ್ಯವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳುವ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯಾಖ್ಯಾನಿಸುವ ಸಾಮರ್ಥ್ಯವನ್ನು ಪರೀಕ್ಷಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.

Before Reading — ಓದುವ ಮೊದಲು

1. Skim the Passage: Quickly read through to get a general idea of the topic, structure and main points. Pay attention to headings, subheadings and formatting cues.

1. ಕ್ಷಿಪ್ರವಾಗಿ ಓದುವುದನ್ನು ಅಭ್ಯಾಸ ಮಾಡಿ: ವಿಷಯ, ರಚನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಮುಖ್ಯ ಅಂಶಗಳ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಕಲ್ಪನೆಯನ್ನು ಪಡೆಯಲು ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಗಳು, ಉಪಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಸೂಚನೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಗಮನ ಕೊಡಿ.

2. Identify the Type: Understand if the passage is descriptive, argumentative, narrative or expository. This helps in anticipating the author's purpose and tone.

2. ಪ್ರಕಾರವನ್ನು ಗುರುತಿಸಿ: ವಿವರಣಾತ್ಮಕ, ವಾದಾತ್ಮಕ, ನಿರೂಪಣೆ ಅಥವಾ ವಿಮರ್ಶಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿದೆಯೇ ಎಂದು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ — ಇದು ಲೇಖಕರ ಉದ್ದೇಶವನ್ನು ನಿರೀಕ್ಷಿಸಲು ಸಹಾಯ ಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ.

3. Note Keywords: Look for keywords that indicate main ideas, transitions, contrasting viewpoints or important details.

3. ಕೀವರ್ಡ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ಗಮನಿಸಿ: ಮುಖ್ಯ ಆಲೋಚನೆಗಳು, ಪರಿವರ್ತನೆಗಳು, ವ್ಯತಿರಿಕ್ತ ದೃಷ್ಟಿಕೋನಗಳು ಅಥವಾ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ವಿವರಗಳನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುವ ಕೀವರ್ಡ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ನೋಡಿ.

During Reading — ಓದುವ ಸಮಯದಲ್ಲಿ

Read Actively: Focus on comprehension rather than speed. Engage with the text by making mental summaries.

ಸಕ್ರಿಯವಾಗಿ ಓದಿ: ವೇಗಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಗ್ರಹಿಕೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಕೇಂದ್ರೀಕರಿಸಿ. ಮಾನಸಿಕ ಸಾರಾಂಶಗಳನ್ನು ಮಾಡುವ ಮೂಲಕ ಪಠ್ಯದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಗಮನಹರಿಸಿ.

Practice tip: Try to answer the questions first, then verify with the passage. ಅಭ್ಯಾಸ ಸೂಚನೆ — ಮೊದಲು ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಉತ್ತರಿಸಲು ಪ್ರಯತ್ನಿಸಿ, ನಂತರ ಪಠ್ಯದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಪರಿಶೀಲಿಸಿ.

Lesson 20

Figures of Speech

ಅಲಂಕಾರಗಳು

Figures of speech are rhetorical devices or language techniques used to convey meaning or create effects beyond the literal interpretation of words.

ಅಲಂಕಾರಗಳು — ಪದಗಳ ಅಕ್ಷರಾರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಮೀರಿ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಸಲು ಅಥವಾ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳನ್ನು ಸೃಷ್ಟಿಸಲು ಬಳಸುವ ಭಾಷಾ ತಂತ್ರಗಳು.

Figure of Speech	Kannada	Example
Simile	ಉಪಮೆ	As white as a ghost · Runs like a horse · Sleeps like a baby
Metaphor	ರೂಪಕ	Susan was a cheetah in the race today.
Personification	ಮೂರ್ತೀಕರಣ	The wind whispered through the trees.
Hyperbole	ಅತಿಶಯೋಕ್ತಿ	I've told you a million times.
Oxymoron	ವಿರುದ್ಧಾಭಾಸ	Deafening silence
Irony	ವ್ಯಂಗ್ಯ	A fire station burnt down.
Pun	ಶ್ಲೇಷ	Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.
Alliteration	ಅನುಪ್ರಾಸ	She sells sea shells by the sea shore.
Euphemism	ಸೌಮ್ಯೋಕ್ತಿ	He passed away. (instead of "he died")
Epigram	ಚಾಟೂಕ್ತಿ	No one is free who is not master of himself.
Metonymy	ಅಂಗವಾಚಕ	The pen is mightier than the sword.
Synecdoche	ಅಂಶವಾಚಕ	All hands on deck.
Transferred Epithet	ಸ್ಥಾನಾಂತರಿತ ವಿಶೇಷಣ	A sleepless night.
Assonance	ಸ್ವರಾನುಪ್ರಾಸ	The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.

1. Simile

A simile uses the words "like" or "as" to compare two dissimilar objects.

ಸಿಮಿಲಿ ಎಂದರೆ ಎರಡು ಭಿನ್ನವಾದ ವಸ್ತುಗಳನ್ನು ಹೋಲಿಸಲು "like" ಅಥವಾ "as" ಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸುವ ಅಲಂಕಾರ.

As white as a ghost
As tall as a giraffe
As sweet as sugar
As strong as an ox
Runs like a horse
Swim like a fish
Climbs like a monkey
Sleeps like a baby

2. Metaphor

In a metaphor, words such as as and like are not used.

ರೂಪಕದಲ್ಲಿ as ಅಥವಾ like ಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.

Susan was a cheetah in the race today.
You just have to consider the world a stage and act accordingly.
Dileep has a stone heart.
Your mind is an ocean.
She was an autumn leaf.

Lesson 21

Prefix

ಪೂರ್ವಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ

A prefix is an affix added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. It is used extensively to create new words or alter the meaning of existing words.

ಪೂರ್ವಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ ಎಂದರೆ ಪದದ ಆರಂಭಕ್ಕೆ ಸೇರಿಸುವ ಅಕ್ಷರ/ಅಕ್ಷರಗಳು — ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಬದಲಾಯಿಸಲು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

Prefix	Meaning	Kannada	Example
dis	not, opposite of	ಅಲ್ಲ, ವಿರುದ್ಧ	satisfied → dissatisfied
mis	wrongly	ತಪ್ಪಾಗಿ	understand → misunderstand
un	not, reverse	ಅಲ್ಲ, ವಿಲೋಮ	acceptable → unacceptable
re	again	ಪುನಃ, ಮತ್ತೆ	election → re-election
inter	between	ಮಧ್ಯೆ	related → interrelated
pre	before	ಮುನ್ನ	pay → prepay
non	not	ಅಲ್ಲ	sense → nonsense
super	above	ಮೇಲೆ	script → superscript
sub	under	ಕೆಳಗೆ	standard → substandard
anti	against, opposing	ವಿರುದ್ಧ	bacterial → antibacterial
im	not, opposite of	ವಿರುದ್ಧ	possible → impossible

More Examples

Word	With Prefix	Word	With Prefix
Patient	Impatient	Secure	Insecure
Important	Unimportant	Moral	Immoral
Accurate	Inaccurate	Able	Unable
Balance	Imbalance	Admissible	Inadmissible
Acceptable	Unacceptable	Mature	Immature
Advertently	Inadvertently	Accustomed	Unaccustomed
Partial	Impartial	Animate	Inanimate
Answered	Unanswered	Penetrable	Impenetrable
Different	Indifferent	Anticipated	Unanticipated
Perfect	Imperfect	Calculable	Incalculable
Button	Unbutton	Polite	Impolite
Capable	Incapable	Mortal	Immortal
Coherent	Incoherent	Aware	Unaware
Possible	Impossible	Comparable	Incomparable
Bearable	Unbearable	Potent	Impotent
Compatible	Incompatible	Comfortable	Uncomfortable
Practical	Impractical	Competent	Incompetent
Reasonable	Unreasonable	Proper	Improper
Complete	Incomplete	Certain	Uncertain
Conscious	Unconscious	Equality	Inequality
Considerate	Inconsiderate	Common	Uncommon
Evitable	Inevitable	Consistency	Inconsistency
Expensive	Inexpensive	Convenience	Inconvenience
Correct	Incorrect	Curable	Incurable
Decided	Undecided	Famous	Infamous
Decency	Indecency	Do	Undo
Flammable	Inflammable	Decisive	Indecisive
Easy	Uneasy	Formal	Informal
Definite	Indefinite	Employed	Unemployed
Humane	Inhumane	Dependence	Independence
Sane	Insane	Describable	Indescribable
Direct	Indirect	Expected	Unexpected
Tangible	Intangible	Familiar	Unfamiliar
Fair	Unfair	Valid	Invalid
Wrap	Unwrap	Fit	Unfit
Veil	Unveil	Tie	Untie
Effective	Ineffective	—	—

Lesson 22

Suffix

ಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ

A suffix is an affix added to the end of a word to change its meaning or function. Suffixes can alter a word's tense, number, part of speech, or even its meaning entirely.

ಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ ಎಂದರೆ ಪದದ ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಸೇರಿಸುವ ಅಕ್ಷರ/ಅಕ್ಷರಗಳು — ಅರ್ಥ ಅಥವಾ ಕಾರ್ಯವನ್ನು ಬದಲಾಯಿಸುತ್ತವೆ.

Suffix	Meaning	Kannada	Examples
-able, -ible	is; can be	ಸಾಮರ್ಥ್ಯ, ಯೋಗ್ಯತೆ, ಅರ್ಹತೆ	affordable, sensible
-ate	showing	ತೋರಿಸುವ, ವ್ಯಕ್ತ	congratulate, regulate
-al, -ial	having characteristics of	ಗುಣ	universal, facial
-ed	past tense verbs; adjectives	ಭೂತಕಾಲ	the dog walked, the walked dog
-en	made of	ಯಾವುದರಿಂದ ಮಾಡಲ್ಪಟ್ಟಿದೆ	golden
-er, -or	one who; person connected with	ಯಾವ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗೆ ಸಂಬಂಧಿತ	teacher, professor
-er	more	ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ	taller
-est	the most	ಅತಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ	tallest
-ful	full of	ಪೂರ್ಣ	helpful
-ic	having characteristics of	ಹೊಂದಿರುವ ಗುಣ	poetic
-ing	verb forms; present participles	ನಿರಂತರ ಕ್ರಿಯೆ	sleeping
-ion, -tion, -ation	act; process	ಪ್ರಕ್ರಿಯೆ	submission, motion, relation, edition
-ity, -ty	state of	ಯಾವ ಸ್ಥಿತಿ	activity, society

Lesson 23

Cloze Test

ಖಾಲಿ ಜಾಗ ಭರ್ತಿ ಮಾಡುವ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆ

A cloze test presents a passage (usually a paragraph or longer) with several blanks where words are missing. The task is to fill in these blanks with appropriate words from a given list or based on context.

ಒಂದು ಕಂಡಿಕೆಯ ಮಧ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಖಾಲಿ ಸ್ಥಳಗಳನ್ನು ತುಂಬಬೇಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ — ನೀಡಿದ ಪಟ್ಟಿಯಿಂದ ಅಥವಾ ಸಂದರ್ಭದ ಆಧಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ ಸೂಕ್ತ ಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಆಯ್ಕೆ ಮಾಡಬೇಕು.

Strategies for Solving Cloze Tests

Strategy	Kannada
Read the Passage Carefully — understand the overall meaning and context before filling blanks.	ಪಾಸೇಜ್ ಅನ್ನು ಎಚ್ಚರಿಕೆಯಿಂದ ಓದಿ — ಒಟ್ಟಾರೆ ಅರ್ಥ ಮತ್ತು ಸಂದರ್ಭವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ.
Predict Words — use clues from surrounding text to predict what type of word fits.	ಪದಗಳನ್ನು ಊಹಿಸಿ — ಸುತ್ತಮುತ್ತಲಿನ ಪಠ್ಯದಿಂದ ಸುಳಿವುಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿ.
Use Context — ensure the words make sense grammatically and logically.	ಸಂದರ್ಭವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿ — ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ ಮತ್ತು ತಾರ್ಕಿಕವಾಗಿ ಸರಿಹೊಂದುತ್ತದೆಯೇ ಎಂದು ಖಚಿತಪಡಿಸಿ.
Check Grammar and Meaning — verify the chosen words fit grammatically.	ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ ಮತ್ತು ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಪರಿಶೀಲಿಸಿ.
Review Your Answers — ensure the passage flows naturally.	ನಿಮ್ಮ ಉತ್ತರಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಿಶೀಲಿಸಿ — ಪಾಸೇಜ್ ಸ್ವಾಭಾವಿಕವಾಗಿ ಹರಿಯುತ್ತದೆಯೇ ಎಂದು ಖಚಿತಪಡಿಸಿ.

Practice Example

Many Americans think Bin Laden is responsible for the 9/11 attacks, and the murders of thousands of innocent men, women and children. These ______ terrorist attacks have made ______ civilian casualties over the years. Yet, the U.S. must remain ______ because no country is ______ from terrorism.

Option	Sequence
A	Senseless, countless, vigilant, safe
B	Safe, countless, vigilant, senseless
C	Countless, vigilant, safe, senseless
D	Senseless, countless, safe, vigilant

Show Answer / ಉತ್ತರ ನೋಡಿ

Correct Answer: A — Senseless, countless, vigilant, safe

Senseless — fits best for a terrorist attack. ಭಯೋತ್ಪಾದಕ ದಾಳಿಗೆ ಸೂಕ್ತವಾದ ಪದ.
Countless — meaning numerous, too many to count. ಎಣಿಸಲಾರದಷ್ಟು ಸಾವುನೋವುಗಳು.
Vigilant — being careful; the U.S. must be wary of terrorist activities. ಎಚ್ಚರಿಕೆಯಿಂದ ಇರುವುದು.
Safe — no country is safe from terrorism. ಯಾವ ದೇಶವೂ ಭಯೋತ್ಪಾದನೆಯಿಂದ ಸುರಕ್ಷಿತವಲ್ಲ.

Practice Passage

The sun had set but there was still some light in the sky. Martin (1)……… on his elbow and looked (2)……… through the leaves. In the waters of the lake, close to the shore, he saw a (3)……… of alligators floating quietly. One of the creatures, (4)……… huge one, was lying on a high (5)……… of sand, a few yards from the water.

#	Options
1	(a) sat (b) crossed (c) leaned (d) lay
2	(a) into (b) down (c) at (d) for
3	(a) semblance (b) family (c) volume (d) number
4	(a) an (b) a (c) one (d) single
5	(a) bank (b) peak (c) pit (d) pile

Lesson 24

Phrasal Verbs

ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಗುಚ್ಛ

Phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles (prepositions or adverbs) that together convey a specific meaning different from the meanings of the individual words. The particle can change the verb's meaning significantly, adding nuances of direction, intensity, completion, or other aspects.

ಫ್ರೇಸಲ್ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳು — ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ಮತ್ತು ಉಪಸರ್ಗ/ಕ್ರಿಯಾವಿಶೇಷಣಗಳ ಸಂಯೋಜನೆ. ಇವು ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕ ಪದಗಳಿಗಿಂತ ಭಿನ್ನವಾದ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ನೀಡುತ್ತವೆ.

Phrasal Verb	Meaning	Kannada	Example
add up to something	equal	ಸಮಾನ	Your purchases add up to $34.
ask around	ask many people the same question	ಅದೇ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಯನ್ನು ಅನೇಕ ಜನರಿಗೆ ಕೇಳುವುದು	I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet.
back something up	reverse	ಹಿಂಜರಿಯುವುದು / ಹಿಮ್ಮುಖವಾಗಿ ಚಲಿಸುವುದು	You'll have to back up your car so that I can get out.
back somebody up	support	ಬೆಂಬಲ	My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job.
blow up	explode	ಸ್ಫೋಟಗೊಳ್ಳುವುದು	The racing car blew up after it crashed into the fence.
blow something up	add air	ಗಾಳಿಯನ್ನು ಸೇರಿಸುವುದು	We have to blow 50 balloons up for the party.

Lesson 25

Synonyms

ಸಮಾನಾರ್ಥಕ ಪದಗಳು

Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as another word.

ಸಮಾನಾರ್ಥಕ ಪದಗಳು — ಒಂದೇ ಅಥವಾ ಬಹುತೇಕ ಒಂದೇ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುವ ಪದಗಳು.

Word	Synonyms	Kannada
Acrimony	Harshness, bitterness	ತೀಕ್ಷ್ಣತೆ
Amplify	Augment, deepen	ವರ್ಧಿಸು
Accord	Agreement, harmony	ಒಪ್ಪಂದ
Abate	Moderate, decrease	ಕುಗ್ಗಿಸು
Adhere	Comply, observe	ಅಂಟಿಕೊಳ್ಳು
Absolve	Pardon, forgive	ವಿಮೋಚಿಸು
Abound	Flourish, proliferate	ಸಮೃದ್ಧವಾಗಿರು
Abject	Despicable, servile	ನಿಕೃಷ್ಟ
Axiom	Adage, truism	ಸಿದ್ಧಸೂತ್ರ
Abortive	Vain, unproductive	ಸ್ಥಗಿತಗೊಳಿಸು
Adjunct	Joined, added	ಅಪ್ರಧಾನ
Allay	Pacify, soothe	ಉಪಶಮನ ಮಾಡು
Awkward	Rude, blundering	ವಕ್ರ
Abjure	Forsake, renounce	ತ್ಯಜಿಸು
Arraign	Incriminate, indict	ಆರೋಪಿಸು
Abolish	Abrogate, annual	ರದ್ದುಗೊಳಿಸು
Adversity	Misfortune, calamity	ವಿಪತ್ತು
Acumen	Awareness, brilliance	ತೀಕ್ಷ್ಣ ಬುದ್ಧಿ
Abash	Disconcert, rattle	ಮುಖಭಂಗ ಮಾಡು
Alleviate	Abate, relieve	ಪರಿಹರಿಸು
Allure	Entice, fascinate	ಆಕರ್ಷಣೆ
Adherent	Follower, disciple	ಸುಸಂಬದ್ಧ
Authentic	Accurate, credible	ಪ್ರಾಮಾಣಿಕ
Adamant	Stubborn, inflexible	ಕಠಿಣ
Admonish	Counsel, reprove	ಎಚ್ಚರಿಸು
Alien	Foreigner, outsider	ಬಹಿಷ್ಕೃತ
Ascend	Climb, escalate	ಏರಿಕೆ
Audacity	Boldness, courage	ಧೈರ್ಯ
Barbarous	Frustrate, perplex	ಅಮಾನುಷ

Lesson 26

Antonyms

ವಿರುದ್ಧಾರ್ಥಕ ಪದಗಳು

Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings to another word.

ವಿರುದ್ಧಾರ್ಥಕ ಪದಗಳು — ಒಂದು ಪದಕ್ಕೆ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುವ ಪದಗಳು.

Word	Antonyms	Kannada
Acrimony	Courtesy, Benevolence	ತೀಕ್ಷ್ಣತೆ
Amplify	Lessen, Contract	ವರ್ಧಿಸು
Accord	Discord	ಒಪ್ಪಂದ
Abate	Aggravate	ಕುಗ್ಗಿಸು
Adhere	Condemn, disjoin	ಅಂಟಿಕೊಳ್ಳು
Absolve	Compel, Accuse	ವಿಮೋಚಿಸು
Abound	Deficient, Destitute	ಸಮೃದ್ಧವಾಗಿರು
Abject	Commendable, Praiseworthy	ನಿಕೃಷ್ಟ
Axiom	Absurdity, Blunder	ಸಿದ್ಧಸೂತ್ರ
Abortive	Productive	ಸ್ಥಗಿತಗೊಳಿಸು
Adjunct	Separated, Subtracted	ಅಪ್ರಧಾನ
Allay	Aggravate, Excite	ಉಪಶಮನ ಮಾಡು
Awkward	Adroit, clever	ವಕ್ರ
Abjure	Approve, Sanction	ತ್ಯಜಿಸು
Arraign	Exculpate, Pardon	ಆರೋಪಿಸು
Abolish	Setup, establish	ರದ್ದುಗೊಳಿಸು
Adversity	Prosperity, Fortune	ವಿಪತ್ತು
Acumen	Stupidity, ignorance	ತೀಕ್ಷ್ಣ ಬುದ್ಧಿ
Abash	Uphold, Discompose	ಮುಖಭಂಗ ಮಾಡು
Alleviate	Aggravate, Enhance	ಪರಿಹರಿಸು
Allure	Repulse, Repel	ಆಕರ್ಷಣೆ
Adherent	Rival, Adversary	ಸುಸಂಬದ್ಧ
Authentic	Fictitious, unreal	ಪ್ರಾಮಾಣಿಕ
Adamant	Flexible, Soft	ಕಠಿಣ
Admonish	Approve, Applaud	ಎಚ್ಚರಿಸು
Alien	Native, Resident	ಬಹಿಷ್ಕೃತ
Ascend	Descend, Decline	ಏರಿಕೆ
Audacity	Mildness, Cowardice	ಧೈರ್ಯ
Barbarous	Civilized	ಅಮಾನುಷ
Batty	Sane	ಹುಚ್ಚು
Bold	Timid	ನಿರ್ಭೀತ
Bleak	Bright, Pleasant	ಉಲ್ಲಾಸವಿಲ್ಲದ
Befogged	Clear headed, Uncloud	ಮಂಜು ಕವಿದ
Barren	Damp, Fertile	ಬರಡು, ಬಂಜರು
Benevolent	Malevolent, Miserly	ಉದಾರ
Barrier	Link, Assistance	ಬೇಲಿ, ಅಡ್ಡ ಗೋಡೆ
Bewitching	Repulsive, Repugnant	ಮರುಳುಗೊಳಿಸು
Baffle	Facilitate, Clarify	ದಿಗ್ಭ್ರಮೆಗೊಳಿಸು

Lesson 27

One Word Substitution

ಒಂದು ಪದದ ಬದಲಿ

One word substitution replaces a long phrase with a single precise word — very useful in competitive exams.

ಒಂದು ಉದ್ದವಾದ ಪದಗುಚ್ಛದ ಬದಲಿಗೆ ಒಂದೇ ಪದವನ್ನು ಬಳಸುವುದು — ಸ್ಪರ್ಧಾತ್ಮಕ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಬಹಳ ಉಪಯುಕ್ತ.

Word	Meaning in English	Kannada
Ambidextrous	Equally skilful with each hand	ಪ್ರತಿ ಕೈಯಿಂದ ಸಮಾನವಾಗಿ ಕೌಶಲ್ಯ ಹೊಂದಿರುವುದು
Alimony	An allowance made to a wife by her husband when they are legally separated	ಕಾನೂನುಬದ್ಧವಾಗಿ ಬೇರ್ಪಟ್ಟಾಗ ಪತಿಯಿಂದ ಹೆಂಡತಿಗೆ ಮಾಡಿದ ಭತ್ಯೆ
Anecdote	A short but amusing story	ಸಣ್ಣ ಆದರೆ ಮನರಂಜಿಸುವ ಕಥೆ
Anteroom	A large entrance or reception room or area	ದೊಡ್ಡ ಪ್ರವೇಶ ದ್ವಾರ ಅಥವಾ ಸ್ವಾಗತ ಕೊಠಡಿ
Anodyne	Medicine which lessens pain	ನೋವು ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಾಡುವ ಔಷಧ

More One-Word Substitutions / ಇನ್ನಷ್ಟು ಉದಾಹರಣೆಗಳು

Word	Meaning
Bibliography	A list of all the books and articles used in a piece of writing
Condolence	Expressing sympathy on intense sorrow caused by death
Inflammable	Things that can easily catch fire
Autobiography	An account of a person's life written by that person
Biography	An account of someone's life written by someone else

Lesson 28

Spell Check

ಕಾಗುಣಿತ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆ

Rule 1: Words ending in silent ‘e’ usually drop the silent ‘e’ before adding a vowel suffix (e.g. -ing, -able, -ary, -ous). ಸೈಲೆಂಟ್ ‘e’ ನಿಂದ ಕೊನೆಗೊಳ್ಳುವ ಪದಗಳು ಸ್ವರ ಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ ಸೇರಿಸುವ ಮೊದಲು ‘e’ ಅನ್ನು ಕೈಬಿಡುತ್ತವೆ.

Drop ‘e’	Result
deplore + able	deplorable
admire + ation	admiration
divide + ing	dividing
admire + able	admirable
explore + ation	exploration
allure + ing	alluring
fame + ous	famous
arrange + ing	arranging
give + ing	giving
arrive + ing	arriving
love + able	lovable
become + ing	becoming
lose + ing	losing
care + ing	caring
move + able	movable
come + ing	coming
name + ing	naming
compare + able	comparable
note + ed	noted
imagine + able	imaginable
imagine + ary	imaginary
desire + ous	desirous
live + ing	living
dine + ing	dining
hope + ing	hoping

Exception: The ‘e’ is retained when a suffix beginning with a consonant letter (e.g. -ment, -ful) is added. ವ್ಯಂಜನ ಅಕ್ಷರದಿಂದ ಪ್ರಾರಂಭವಾಗುವ ಪ್ರತ್ಯಯ ಸೇರಿಸಿದಾಗ ‘e’ ಉಳಿಯುತ್ತದೆ.

Root + Suffix	Result
arrange + ment	arrangement
care + ful	careful
extreme + ly	extremely
force + ful	forceful
hate + ful	hateful
like + ness	likeness
lone + ly	lonely
move + ment	movement

Exam Question Types at a Glance

Category	Topics
Grammar	Tenses, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Subject–Verb Agreement, Degrees of Comparison, Articles, Sentence Formation, Fill in the Blanks, Apostrophe, Singular & Plural, Change of Voice
Vocabulary	Synonyms & Antonyms, Meaning of Words, Remove the Odd One, Phrasal Verbs, Fill in the Blanks, Spell Check
Other	Idioms & Phrases, Proverbs, Cloze Test, Analogy, One Word Substitution, Reading Comprehension, Miscellaneous

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Alphabet & Types of Sentences

Sentence and Phrase

Types of Sentences / ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

Parts of Speech

There are 8 Parts of Speech

Noun

Types of Nouns / ನಾಮಪದಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

1. Proper Noun — ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ನಾಮಪದ

Gender-specific Nouns — ಲಿಂಗ ಆಧಾರಿತ ನಾಮಪದಗಳು

Adjective → Abstract Noun

Pronoun

Types of Pronouns / ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳ ವಿಧಗಳು

I. Personal Pronouns — ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಸರ್ವನಾಮಗಳು

Verb

Two Types of Verbs

Helping Verbs — Singular vs Plural

V1, V2, V3, V4

V1 · V2 · V3 Table

Adverbs

Quick Tips — Whom & Whose

Conjunctions

Paired Conjunctions / ಜೋಡಿ ಸಂಯೋಗಗಳು

1. Lest — Should

2. Either — Or · Neither — Nor · Not only — But also

Common Mistakes / ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ತಪ್ಪುಗಳು

Prepositions

Types of Prepositions

Prepositions of Time — ಸಮಯವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುವ

Adjective

Types of Adjectives

Some · Any · Many · Much

Tenses

Three Main Tenses

1. Present Simple Tense

Usage — Present Simple ಎಲ್ಲಿ ಬಳಸಬೇಕು

Degrees of Comparison

1. Positive Degree — Examples

2. Comparative Degree — Examples

3. Superlative Degree — Examples

Type I — By adding ‘er’ and ‘est’

Articles

Types of Articles

1. Definite Article — the

2. Indefinite Articles — a, an

3. Zero Article

Countable Nouns

Subject–Verb Agreement

Singular → Plural Nouns

Verb — Singular & Plural

Specific Rules

Direct & Indirect Speech

Modal Verbs — Changes

Changes in Place & Time

Pronoun Changes

Present Simple → Past Simple

Active Voice → Passive Voice

Present Simple — Conversion Rules

Examples

Question Tag

Rules of Question Tags

Para-jumbled Sentences (PQRS)

Types of Questions

Approach 1 — Using Transition Words

Transition Words in English

Examples

Idioms & Phrases

Reading Comprehension (RC)

Before Reading — ಓದುವ ಮೊದಲು

During Reading — ಓದುವ ಸಮಯದಲ್ಲಿ

Figures of Speech

1. Simile

2. Metaphor

Prefix

More Examples

Suffix

Cloze Test

Strategies for Solving Cloze Tests

Practice Example